When we think of ancient historians, names like Livy or Herodotus often come to mind. But Dionysius of Halicarnassus deserves a closer look. Around 30 BC, Dionysius was a Greek scholar who moved to Rome during the early days of the Empire. There, he produced Roman Antiquities, a sweeping history of Rome from its mythical beginnings up to the First Punic War. Though 15 titles of his work are known, 13 survived in one form or another; his work remains a crucial source for early Roman history, standing alongside Livy’s accounts.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus and ruins of Rome by Zofia Guertin
Theatre of Pompey plan and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Illustration by Zofia Guertin.
Dionysius wasn’t just a historian—he was also a master of rhetoric. His writings aimed to explain and justify Roman culture to a Greek audience, blending historical detail with rhetorical theory. In fact, he often used his history as a practical showcase of rhetorical principles. Beyond history, he wrote insightful critiques of famous Greek orators like Demosthenes and Isocrates, praising Roman writers for returning to classical Greek ideals over more ornate styles.
In this episode of Two Friends Talk History, Zofia welcomes Stefano Carlo Sala, a PhD candidate at the University of St Andrews, to discuss Dionysius of Halicarnassus—a key figure in Roman historiography.
They explore how Dionysius, a Greek historian in Augustan Rome, used monuments and myths to present early Rome as a fundamentally Greek city. Through comparisons with Livy and Polybius, Stefano unpacks Dionysius’ unique approach to storytelling, monumentality, and cultural identity.
Brick and Marble. Illustration by Zofia Guertin.
While Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Livy both wrote about the early history of Rome, their approaches reveal striking differences—especially in how they describe the city’s monuments. Dionysius, writing for a Greek-speaking audience unfamiliar with Rome’s layout, offers detailed observations about buildings still visible in his time, even noting which ones he personally visited. Livy, on the other hand, paints a broader picture centered around familiar Roman landmarks like the Forum and Capitol, assuming a Latin-speaking readership already acquainted with the city. Dionysius’s attention to architectural detail connects to his larger ideological project: presenting Rome as the heir to Classical Greece. This vision runs through his historical work, where he draws frequent parallels between early Roman and Classical Greek monuments, values, and myths. By doing so, Dionysius not only makes Roman history more accessible to Greek readers but also argues that Rome deserves a central place in the Greek cultural tradition. His comparisons—even when archaeologically inaccurate—serve a deeper symbolic purpose, showing Rome as both the continuation and the future of Greece’s classical legacy.
💡 Topics covered:
Dionysius’ blending of rhetoric and history
Why monuments mattered in shaping Rome’s past
Connections between Classical Greece and Archaic Rome
How historians under Augustus crafted Rome’s legacy
The political and cultural stakes of memory
Whether you’re into ancient history, architecture, or historical narratives, this episode offers a rich perspective on the ways history gets written—and rewritten.
Sources
Edlund, I. (1980). Livy and Dionysios of Halikarnassos as Roman archaeologists in Rivista di Archeologia vol.4, pp. 26-30. You can download for free: Here.
Wiater, N. (2011). The Ideology of Classicism: Language, History, and Identity in Dionysius of Halicarnassus. (Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte; Vol. 105). de Gruyter.
Stefano’s Academia Page and Publications:
Carlo Sala, S. (2025). Law as a catalyst and remedy for civic violence in early Rome : two examples from Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in Cahiers des études anciennes [En ligne], LXII | 2025. URL:READ HERE ONLINE.
If you would like to follow Stefano, you can join him on LinkedIn: HERE or Academia.edu: HERE !
🔗 Support the show on Patreon at Patreon.com/Archaeoartist 📸 Follow on Instagram @TwoFriendsTalkHistory
What did it mean to be bought, sold, and sexually exploited in the ancient world? In this powerful episode of Two Friends Talk History, Zofia is joined by doctoral candidate Florence Felsheim to explore the hidden realities of sexual trafficking in ancient Greece and Rome. Drawing on literary texts, archaeological evidence, and cognitive science, Florence unpacks how systems of enslavement and exploitation operated in societies often romanticized in popular culture.
We examine the scale of the ancient slave trade, the gendered dimensions of exploitation, and how enslaved women were commodified—expected to provide not just labor, but sexual access. From Roman brothels to banquet halls, the episode reveals how normalized sexual violence was embedded in the fabric of ancient daily life.
As part of Sexual Violence Awareness Month, this conversation sheds light on uncomfortable histories, connecting past systems of abuse to present-day conversations on power, consent, and human dignity. Listener discretion is advised.
Human Trafficking in the Ancient World: A Forgotten Reality
When most people think of human trafficking, they imagine a modern crisis. However, the practice of exploiting people for labor, sex, and servitude dates back thousands of years. In the ancient world, trafficking was not only common—it was institutionalized and deeply woven into the fabric of many societies.
In ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, slavery was a cornerstone of the economy. Prisoners of war, kidnapped foreigners, and even impoverished citizens were often sold into slavery. Unlike modern trafficking, which is largely illegal and hidden, ancient systems openly supported human trade. Markets for slaves were publicly established and legal codes could regulate their trade and treatment.
Women and children were particularly vulnerable. Many were trafficked for domestic service, labor, alongside sexual exploitation. In ancient Greece, for instance, women were commonly sold into brothels or forced to work as concubines. Rome’s vast empire relied heavily on enslaved people, many of whom were captured from conquered territories and transported long distances.
Though the term “human trafficking” didn’t exist in antiquity, the mechanisms of coercion, transport, and exploitation mirror modern patterns. Individuals lost autonomy, families were torn apart, and countless lives were shaped by violence and subjugation.
Understanding the ancient roots of human trafficking challenges the myth that it’s a purely modern problem. Instead, it reveals a tragic continuity in human history: the persistent commodification of people. While laws and attitudes have evolved, the underlying injustice remains disturbingly familiar.
By studying trafficking in the ancient world, we can better understand the cultural, economic, and political forces that continue to allow it today. Acknowledging its history is a step toward dismantling it in the present.
Speaking Through Objects
Moregine bracelet, illustrated by Zofia Guertin.
In 2000, archaeologists at Moregine, near Pompeii, uncovered a gold snake-shaped bracelet inscribed “dominus ancillae suae” (“the master to his very own slave girl”) on the body of a woman fleeing the eruption of Vesuvius. Found alongside other jewelry and coins, the bracelet, weighing about 500 grams, is crafted to coil three times around the arm. Its inscription has sparked debate: it may have been a gift to a domestic slave, a freedwoman, or a slave prostitute, or a metaphorical gift between lovers. The discovery highlights complex social dynamics and the harsh realities of slavery in ancient Roman society.
Resources
Levin-Richardson, Sarah. “Modern Tourists, Ancient Sexualities.” Pompeii in the Public Imagination from Its Rediscovery to Today. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Keuls, Eva C. Reign of the Phallus : Sexual Politics in Ancient Athens. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994.
McClure, Laura. Phryne of Thespiae : Courtesan, Muse, and Myth. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2024.
Funke, Melissa. Phryne : a life in fragments. London : Bloomsbury Academic
🌍 Sexual Violence Support Resources
If you or someone you know needs support, here are trusted organizations offering help across the globe:
In the latest episode of Two Friends Talk History, Zofia and Dr Briana King return to our discussion into Classical Receptions. This time, we go into some of the heavier subject matter that we felt deserved its own episode. Returning guest, Dr. Briana King, joins me to unpack the dark and often overlooked threads of sexual violence in ancient history and its modern reinterpretations. We discuss ancient precedents for modern cinematic and television representations of sexual violence – made spectacle – in retellings of Roman narratives.
We’re diving deep into how classical reception shapes public perception—and why that matters. This is a heavy but essential conversation about power, misrepresentation, and the stories we choose to tell. 🏛️
📢 Trigger warning: this episode discusses sexual violence and may be distressing to some listeners. Please listen with care.
Classical Reception of Sexual Violence in Antiquity in Modern Visual Media with Briana King –
Two Friends Talk History
Dr King has argued through her doctoral research, and in her more recent publications, that these scenes can be interpreted as real reflections of actual events. And perhaps, these visualisations were part of shaping realities that they depicted in antiquity, as they appear to be doing now.
Due to copyright, I have drawn the images that we discussed in the episode, since those available for viewing on the Beazley archive are difficult to make out at times.
(Left) Athenian red-figure stamnos; c. 430 BCE; Two men lifting a hetaira between them; Polygnotos Painter; Musee du Louvre Cp274/Cp9682; Beazley 213398.
In our discussion, several sculptural pieces from the Roman period were discussed, as representative of the brutal or depraved aspects of Roman society. In 2000 the Museo Nazionale di Napoli opened the “Secret Cabinet”, a special room that had for over a hundred years kept items found in Pompeii that were deemed “pornographic” away from the average viewing public. That these items are still held in this space, though the doors have been opened, still suggests that this is how we ought to understand them, not unlike their first museum display context in the Portici Palace, in Naples.
Taken from their original contexts, their use as emblems of that can be understandable, but as with all analysis of antiquity, context is key. Items like Pan and the she-goat (found in 1752) were, like many erotic images from the Roman period, in garden or outdoor spaces within a Roman villa. Sexually explicit sculpture – sometimes violent, could be commonly found within Roman society, and was not locked away in secret viewing rooms – it was open access.
Pan and the she-goat were found in a garden, south of the pool in the Villa of the Papyri, in Herculaneum. The garden was filled with several sculptures that included erudite philosophers, animals, and gods.
Another sculptural piece discussed in the episode was the Satyr and Hermaphrodite, a type so popular in antiquity that at least 30 replicas survive in marble, bronze, and frescoes. This image was so popular, the reproductions were found across the Roman Empire and likely derived from a Hellenistic model.
Left: Sculpture of Pan and she-goat, from the Herculaneum villa of the Papyri. National Archaeological Museum, Naples; Right: Hermaphroditus fighting off a Satyr from the Villa of Poppaea, Oplontis. Images from Wikimedia Commons.
This statue group would have likely been displayed in villa (Villa of Poppaea in Oplontis, Italy, and the villa at Chiragan in Gaul) or theatre (Daphne and Side) contexts, and likely among other statues that could be ‘read’ in addition to it. It was very much a public art Retzleff suggests that its interpretation could include:
“Dionysiac aspects, the reversal of norms, the objectification of the body, the sexual tryst, and the agon.”
Connotations of sexual violence and vulnerability are suggested by the hermaphrodite unclothed state, with her garments below the scene, and a rocky framing- indicating a possible outdoor bathing context.
Dr King also discusses the frescoes from a bathhouse in Pompeii that used erotic imagery above the locker/cubbies in the building’s changing rooms. These have been interpreted as humorous, meant to be read as an aide-mémoire, for where one left their garments. Similar images were found within a Pompeiian brothel, where the context suggests seductive enticements for clients, rather than a funny visual decoration.
Suburban bath locker frescoes, Pompeii. Left: a foursome; top right: a female and two males; bottom right: male performing cunnilingus.
🎙️ Two Friends Talk History continues to explore the uncomfortable but necessary intersections of ancient narratives and modern storytelling. In this episode, we invite you to listen with openness and care, to reflect on the legacies of representation, and to question how visualisations of sex and violence continue to echo through time.
📚 You can follow Dr Briana King’s work on Academia.edu. 🎧 Subscribe to the podcast via Buzzsprout or wherever you get your podcasts.
Until next time, — Zofia
To follow the spectacular Dr King’s academic work, check out her page on Academia.edu.
For sexual violence or violence against women, the National Domestic Abuse Helpline (0808 2000 247) run by Refuge and Women’s Aid provides 24/7 support and information.
Additional resources include Rape Crisis England & Wales which offers specialist support for women who have experienced sexual violence. Women’s Aid also offers a live chat service and email support
Visit the Rights of Women website on legal information sheets on a range of issues, including Forced Marriage and the law. Support for victims of ‘honour’-based violence and forced marriage.
Cohen, E. E. (2000). “Whoring under Contract: The Legal Context of Prostitution in Fourth-Century Athens.” In V Hunter and J. Edmondson, eds., Law and Social Status in Classical Athens. Oxford. 113-48.
Cohen, E. E. (2006).”Free and Unfree Sexual Work: An Economic Analysis of Athenian Prostitution.” In C. A. Faraone and L. A. McClure, eds., Prostitutes and Courtesans in the Ancient World. Madison. 95-124.
Cohen, E. E. (2014). “Sexual Abuse and Sexual Rights: Slaves’ Erotic Experience at Athens and Rome.” In T. K. Hubbard, ed., A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities. Malden, MA. 184-98.
Davidson, J. (1997). Courtesans and Fishcakes: The Consuming Passions of Classical Athens. London.
Gardner, J. (2009), Women in Roman Law and Society. London.
Glazebrook, A. (2017). “Gender and Slavery” in The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Slaveries. Eds. Stephen Hodkinson, Marc Kleijwegt, and Kostas Vlassopoulos. Oxford University Press. Oxford Handbooks Online.
Glazebrook, A. (2016). “Prostitutes, Women, and Gender in Ancient Greece” in Women in Antiquity: Real Women across the Ancient World. Eds. Stephanie Lynn Budin and Jean Macintosh Turfa. Routledge Publishing. 703-13.
Glazebrook, A. (2011). Greek Prostitutes in the Ancient Mediterranean, 800 BCE to 200 CE. Madison WI: University of Wisconsin Press. (co-edited with M. M. Henry).
Keuls, E. C. (1993). The Reign of the Phallus: Sexual Politics in Ancient Athens. London: University of California Press Ltd.
McGinn, T. A. J. (1998). Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome. Oxford.
McGinn, T. A. J. (2004). The Economy of Prostitution in the Roman World: A Study of Social History and the Brothel. Ann Arbor.
Moses, D. C. (1993), “Livy’s Lucretia and the Validity of Coerced Consent in Roman Law,” in Consent and Coercion to Sex and Marriage in Ancient and Medieval Societies. Dunbarton Oaks.
Retzleff, A. (2007). The Dresden Type Satyr-Hermaphrodite Group in Roman Theatres in the AJA, Vol. 111, No.3, July. Pp. 459-472.
Stewart, A. F. (1995). ‘Rape?’ In Reeder, E. D. (Ed.). Pandora: Women in Classical Greece. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 74-90.
In the latest episode of Two Friends Talk History, I invited the brilliant Florence Felsheim, a PhD candidate in Classics at the University of St Andrews, for a fascinating deep dive into the intersection of virtual reality (VR) and cultural heritage. Together, they explore how technology is transforming the ways we visualise and interpret the past—and why that matters for both academics and the general public.
The episode kicks off with Florence introducing her work and academic journey. As a scholar specializing in ancient history and human trafficking in ancient Greece and Rome, Florence brings a nuanced perspective to the conversation. But her passion for technological innovation in cultural heritage projects is what makes this discussion particularly captivating.
Florence and Zofia delve into the evolution of virtual archaeology—the application of VR and augmented reality (AR) to reconstruct and visualize historical sites, artifacts, and environments. They discuss how initiatives like the Seville Principles emerged to create ethical and methodological guidelines for these digital reconstructions. These principles emphasize historical accuracy, interdisciplinary collaboration, and transparency, aiming to balance scientific integrity with the creative liberties of visual interpretation.
Why Do Digital Reconstructions Matter?
Throughout the conversation, Florence and I reflect on the “so what?” of VR in archaeology—why does it matter beyond the digital novelty? Florence makes a compelling case for the power of immersive reconstructions to democratize access to heritage. Through VR, people who might never visit physical archaeological sites can explore ancient cities, temples, or objects from the comfort of their homes or local museums.
The conversation also highlights how VR can provide new layers of interpretation. For example, by digitally reconstructing a ruined temple, researchers can experiment with lighting, architectural features, and hypothetical decorations, offering new insights into how these spaces might have appeared and been experienced by ancient people.
One of the most thought-provoking parts of the discussion is the tension between historical accuracy and artistic license. Florence discusses how art and accuracy can vary through different approaches, questioning where the line should be drawn between creative interpretation and factual representation. The episode explores whether reconstructions should prioritise strict accuracy or allow for some imaginative flair to engage wider audiences.
In our discussion , we touch on a few projects that are really interesting, that you should definitely check out:
(Photo: Smithsonian Online Magazine, September 11, 2017)
To read the Smithsonian article and find out more about the TlingitDakl’aweidi clan’s Killer Whale clan crest hat, or Kéet S’aaxw (photo below from isplayed together at the 2012 clan conference in Sitka, Alaska), click here.
For more information about the virtual environment analysis of the fantastically cool submerged Late Pleistocene cave site in Quintana Roo we discussed,click here.
Despite its immense potential, VR in cultural heritage is not without challenges. Florence and Zofia discuss several hurdles:
Resource Intensity: High-quality VR reconstructions require significant technical expertise, funding, and computing power, which can limit accessibility for smaller institutions.
Authenticity vs. Engagement: The challenge of making VR experiences both educational and entertaining without distorting historical facts.
Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Effective virtual archaeology demands teamwork between archaeologists, historians, engineers, and computer scientists—fields that don’t always speak the same language.
However, the conversation also highlights the exciting opportunities:
Public Engagement: Museums and educational institutions are increasingly using VR to create interactive exhibits, sparking new interest in ancient history.
Research Innovation: Scholars can use VR models to test theories about ancient structures, city planning, or daily life.
If you’re fascinated by history, technology, or the future of cultural heritage, this episode is a must-listen. Florence’s insights into the ethical and methodological complexities of virtual archaeology will leave you with a deeper appreciation for the ways technology is reshaping our connection to the past.
Tune in to Two Friends Talk History to explore how VR is breathing new life into ancient worlds—and what that means for historians, artists, and the curious minds who love to explore them.
(Photo: The fabulous Florence, meeting our Augustus and his amazing technicolour dream cuirass)!
Sources
Bendicho, V.M.LM., ‘International Guidelines for Virtual Archaeology: The Seville Principles’, in Corsi, C., Slapšak, B., Vermeulen, F. (eds), Good Practice in Archaeological Diagnostics. Natural Science in Archaeology, 2013, 269-283. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01784-6_16
Watterson, A., ‘Beyond Digital Dwelling: Re-thinking Interpretive Visualisation in Archaeology’, in Open Archaeology 1 (1), 2015, 119-130. https://doi.org/10.1515/opar-2015-0006
In a world often dominated by narratives of conflict, it can be easy to overlook the significance of peace—what it means, how it is built, and how it is represented. In the latest collab with the Visualising War and Peace podcast and Two Friends TalkHistory, director of the project and host, Dr. Alice König, offers a compelling exploration of ancient peace studies. Her insights reveal why understanding how past societies visualised and practiced peace can offer valuable lessons for today’s world.
If you haven’t yet tuned in, this episode is a must-listen for anyone interested in history, conflict resolution, and the power of storytelling to shape both ancient and modern societies. Here’s a glimpse of the fascinating conversation that awaits you.
From Visualising War to Visualising Peace
When Dr. König and her colleague, Nicolas Wiater, first launched the Visualising War project in 2017, their goal was to explore how representations of war throughout history have shaped cultural perceptions of conflict. However, as they delved deeper, they realized that one side of the story was missing.
Why was there so much emphasis on war, but so little on peace?
This observation inspired the expansion of the project into Visualising War and Peace, creating space to explore how peace and peacebuilding have been imagined, experienced, and remembered. Through this new lens, König aims to challenge the imbalance in historical narratives and bring peace studies into the spotlight.
In part 2 of our collaboration, Zofia guest-hosts the Visualising War and Peace Podcast to interview project founder, Dr. Alice König. In this conversation, Alice she unveils the groundbreaking Ancient Peace Studies Network—the first of its kind dedicated to examining how peace was understood, experienced, and represented across different ancient cultures.Discover why peace narratives have received far less scholarly attention than war stories, and how Dr. König's team is working to change that by investigating whose voices and experiences are reflected in ancient accounts of peace and reconciliation.What can ancient approaches to conflict resolution teach us about modern peacebuilding? In this thought-provoking special episode, we explore how elite-centered peace narratives shaped societal attitudes in antiquity and continue to influence our understanding of peace today. Dr. König reveals how her interdisciplinary network is "reading against the grain" of ancient sources to uncover ordinary people's lived experiences of peace—voices that have been historically marginalized but might offer valuable insights for contemporary peace literacy.Don't miss our conversation about bridging academic research with creative outreach, as Dr. König shares details about the network's collaboration with a professional theater company, NMT Automatics, and the upcoming multi-authored publication, "New Visions of Ancient Peace." This episode offers a perfect blend of historical scholarship and practical application, demonstrating how ancient wisdom might help us visualize and build more effective paths to peace in our modern world. We hope you enjoy this collab episode!If you would like to get in touch with Alice regarding her work, please visit the University of St Andrews' Visualising War website and the Visualising Peace Project.The music for the episode was composed by Jonathan Young, and Zofia Guertin mixed the episode. To get in touch and find out more about Two Friends Talk History:Find us on Instagram & TwitterSupport us through PatreonBuy our merch on RedbubbleExplore more resources and topics about the ancient world on ArchaeoArtistIllustration by Zofia GuertinIf you'd like to get in touch, email at twofriendstalkhistory@gmail.com.
The Rise of Ancient Peace Studies
One of the most exciting aspects of the podcast episode is Dr. König’s introduction of the Ancient Peace Studies Network. This groundbreaking initiative, which she recently founded, is the first of its kind. While ancient military history is a well-established field, ancient peace studies is still in its infancy.
In the podcast, Dr. König explains that the network aims to:
Foster interdisciplinary research by bringing together scholars from both ancient and modern peace studies.
Challenge the dominance of elite perspectives in historical sources, seeking to reconstruct the lived experiences of ordinary people in times of peace.
Generate new insights into how concepts of peace were defined, visualized, and practiced in antiquity.
The network’s ambitious plans include the publication of a multi-authored book titled New Visions of Ancient Peace, which will present fresh perspectives on peace narratives and their real-world implications.
Stories of Peace: What Do We Imagine and Why?
One of the most thought-provoking segments of the interview focuses on peace storytelling. Dr. König highlights how certain depictions of peace became dominant in antiquity while others faded into obscurity. This disparity raises intriguing questions:
Why were some peace narratives celebrated while others were ignored?
How did stories of peace shape people’s expectations and experiences of stability or conflict?
In the podcast, Dr. König explains that ancient sources often reflect elite biases, focusing on peace as a political achievement of rulers and conquerors. Yet, by reading against the grain, scholars can reconstruct glimpses of peace from the perspective of ordinary citizens—farmers, artisans, and families—who lived through these times of fragile stability.
Why This Matters: The Real-World Impact of Peace Studies
As Dr. König eloquently argues, studying ancient peace is not merely an intellectual exercise—it has real-world implications. By expanding the scope of peace studies to include the ancient world, we gain new insights into how societies have constructed, preserved, and sometimes failed to maintain peace.
In a time when the world faces ongoing conflicts and the challenge of peacebuilding, looking back to the past can provide valuable lessons. The podcast episode leaves listeners with a powerful message: the stories we tell about peace—whether ancient or modern—shape the realities we strive for.
Don’t Miss Out – Listen to the Full Interview
This episode of the Visualising War and Peacepodcast offers a rare opportunity to rethink how we conceptualise peace. Dr. Alice König’s passion for unearthing forgotten peace narratives and her commitment to interdisciplinary collaboration make for a captivating conversation that will leave you with plenty to reflect on.
🎧 Tune in now to gain a deeper understanding of the history of peace and its enduring relevance today. And if you find the episode as compelling as we did, share it with friends, colleagues, and anyone interested in exploring the human experience of peace—past and present.
To launch series 4 of Two Friends Talk History, I was very fortunate to interview Dr Alice König, for this special crossover episode. Alice’s is the dynamic host of the Visualising War and Peace Podcast, a project that researches ancient habits of visualising war and peace through discussions with multi-disciplinary creators, writers, researchers, soldiers, curators and many more. I spoke with Alice in 2023 about her project as it was then in-progress; in today’s discussion, she reflects on larger themes and the forthcoming publication about the Visualising War and Peace project that is being published by Routledge, titled, Visualising War across the Ancient Mediterranean: Interplay between Conflict Narratives in Different Genres and Media (Routledge 2025).
Podcast art by: Zofia Guertin
Special Episode: Ancient war stories and their real-world ramifications with Alice König –
Two Friends Talk History
The upcoming volume covers a broad geographic range of topics from several ancient cultures including Jewish, Greek, Roman, Persian and Christian, to unpick how modes of visualising war can be found intertextually across space and time. This innovative series also presents readers with a way to consider pivoting from traditional means of visualising the past and warfare through a detailed methodology in the introduction. It encourages readers and researchers of the future to study conflict narratives with new interrogative methods.
In part two, I will be interviewing Alice about how we tackle the study of war’s aftermath, conflict resolution, peacebuilding and peace itself were understood and experienced in different cultures and communities across antiquity.
To celebrate International Women’s Day, I’d like to talk about five powerful, clever and resilient female leaders in antiquity: Apama, Cleopatra II, Fulvia, Regilla and Zenobia.
When looking at women in the ancient world, it’s important to recognise they had significant hurdles to exercising power in public spaces. It was generally oriented from the perspective, as Sarah Pomeroy writes, that “the private preceded the public: when public roles existed, they developed from family relationships.” So strategic marriages, powerful parents and acting as regent for future rulers offered elite women many opportunities to exercise more authority than any other women in society at many points throughout history. By acknowledging that their pathways to power lay through their bonds to family relationships is not to say they lacked agency or diminish their accomplishments, but simply to contextualise the perspective through which power flowed. The five fierce females I’ve picked took power for themselves by hook or crook and were forces to be reckoned with, facing the triumphs and tragedies they were dealt.
1. Apama, the first Queen of the Seleucid Empire (4th century BCE)
Apama of Sogdiana, first queen of the Seleucid dynasty. Art by Z.Guertin.
Though there is not much written about Apama, I include her first on my list because she came into power from a politically disadvantageous position and ended up having three cities named after her and was key to the founding of the Seleucid dynasty of Asia Minor!
Apama was born into a high-ranking family in the Sogdian region of the Achaemenid Empire in the 4th century BCE. Apama’s father, Spitamenes, was a powerful military leader who successfully led armed resistance against Alexander the Great. Spitamenes was murdered in Bactria by local clans wishing to sue for peace with the Macedonian army. It is unknown what transpired following this – with the elite women of Spitamenes’ family or other Sogdian elites – but four years later, Apama was married to Alexander’s top-tier Companion, Seleucus, at the Great Wedding of Susa. This was a mass marriage between Iranian noblewomen and the higher status Macedonian military, orchestrated by Alexander.
It is impossible to know what the women thought of this, since their voices are entirely absent from the record, and they were effectively high-status captives being married to an enemy army to cement their new political reality. Perhaps the elite women of Sogdiana were kept in relative protection like the captive women of Persian King Darius’ household (Diod. 17.37.5-38, Curt. 3.12.15-26). Given the brutal circumstances of her father’s death, it’s unlikely this was a comfortable period of her life, however, she would climb to the highest position possible in the new empire that Alexander was carving into Asia Minor.
Apama was the only wife we know of from these unions who was not abandoned after Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE. It is very likely that she was a formidable person. Surviving and navigating the wars between the Macedonians in the Achaemenid territories, the wars of the Successors (Alexander’s Companions) and carving out an empire with her husband across the largest and most ethnically diverse of all the territories was surely no easy feat. Seleucus took control of the conquered eastern empire and managed to hold it through the twists and turns of alliances, marriages and wars in the 20 years that followed Alexander’s death in 323 BCE.
Her familial and cultural connections were likely assets to Seleucus holding this territory in the immediate aftermath of Alexander’s death. Apama spoke the languages and understood all the court customs. Over nearly 30 years Apama and Seleucus raised three children, who were part of dynastic marriages themselves, and continued the dynasty they founded. Apama disappeared from the record around the time Seleucus took another wife, Stratonice, a princess of the Antigonid dynasty of Macedonia. Romantics suggest that it was only after Apama’s death that Seleucus remarried again, and only for political gain. This is suggested since Seleucus allowed his son and heir to marry Stratonice when it became evident that they had a romance of their own.
2. Cleopatra II, Queen of Egypt (2nd century BCE)
Cleopatra III, Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II. Art by Zofia Guertin.
It is always tricky talking about the Ptolemies. They all shared similar names and were constantly fighting and making alliances with one another. Also, check out the episode ‘Dysfunctional Families‘ on Two Friends Talk History in series 1, if you’re curious to hear more. Of the Cleopatra’s in this dynasty, I think the famous though lesser-known Cleopatra II was a powerful queen who was dealt a difficult hand but gave as good as she got.
Cleopatra II was born (pre-145 BCE) into a period of war and instability, with two brothers who were frequently at odds with one another. This triad was a pretty dysfunctional, which I talked about in my podcast on their A+ level sibling rivalries. Early in the reign of Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic kingdom was involved in a series of ongoing wars with the Seleucid Empire, which at this point numbered six (170-168 BCE).
Cleopatra II was married first to her brother, the Ptolemy VI Philometor (mother-loving) in 175 BCE. They ruled well together and had several children, though they were essentially always at war with their younger brother, Ptolemy VIII Physcon (fatty). After the death of Philometor, Physcon to wrestle the throne from her which led to a civil war. While she had the stewardship of the kingdom, Cleopatra had been popular with the people, but their warring left her in a dangerous position. To protect her children from her first marriage she agreed to a political union and peace. They were married after 145 BCE and it was pretty rocky, with Game of Thrones levels of twists and turns.
Typically, writers characterise the breakdown of their marriage as some type of jealousy between mother and daughter. I would strongly disagree. After the birth of their son, and Ptolemy VIII’s legitimate heir, he began a relationship with his teenage daughter-in-law, Cleopatra III. Things spiralled into another civil war once Ptolemy also married his wife’s daughter in secret. Cleopatra II raised and army and tried to have her husband killed; Ptolemy VIII fled with his new bride and the children of his sister-wife. Like something out of a True Crime podcast, to punish his sister-wife he had his nephew and next in line for the throne murdered and sent to his estranged wife on her birthday. Obviously, Cleopatra II wasn’t going to take this lying down, and continued to rule from Egypt alone while her exiled husband and daughter ruled from Cyprus from 132 – 124 BCE. This tore the country apart and weakened the empire. Eventually, the three monarchs were forced into a reconciliation, and they reigned together until his death. All. Three. Together.
Cleopatra II had a pretty nightmarish existence by modern standards, but what is fascinating is that through her leadership and strength she gained enough support from the Egyptian people to have them side with her time and again against her brother and managed to rule alone for over a decade. It was very unusual for a queen to manoeuvre a king out of power and hold on to it.
3. Fulvia, The First Lady of Republican Populists (1st century BCE)
Bust of Fulvia (as Nike) right / Athena standing left, holding shield and spear; [Z]MERTOR[IGOS/FILWNIDOU] in two lines in left field. Art by Zofia Guertin.
This Roman matriarch was a total boss. Criticised for her ambition, publicity and cleverness, Fulvia loyally supported – some suggest manipulated – the statecraft of the Roman Republic. The sign of an interesting woman, Fulvia was maligned by Roman historians and writers as “having nothing womanly about her except her body” (Vell.Pat. 2.74.2). Fulvia was a wealthy and well-connected noblewoman and though constrained by the norms of her day, she was active in politics, commanded the loyalties of street gangs and armies in the Late Republic. Through her three marriages to several of the most powerful and popular Roman political leaders of the first century BCE, Fulvia even went to war against the future Augustus – her son in law! Fulvia is definitely one of my all-time favourites.
Fulvia’s rise to fame was established through her first two marriages to Publius Clodius Pulcher and Gaius Scribonius Curio. Both marriages were cut short by their violent deaths, Clodius by political murder and Curio through military action in Africa. It was her marriage to Clodius that cemented her in the A-list of elite Roman women; Clodius was a massively influential populist leader of the Populares faction (leader of the Plebians). He mobilised gangs and incited violence to suit his causes, seriously aggravating the conservative elite (Optimates) faction, which led to his murder. Fulvia, politically savvy from the start, used her position as the mourning wife of a famous man to show how devoted she was and how his name lived on through her. Every future connection she made drew on the persona she cultivated in the wake of Clodius’ death – that of the dutiful and noble wife. By the time of her third marriage, to Marcus Antonius, she was stratospherically powerful. According to Cassius Dio, Fulvia controlled the politics of Rome through her financial and personal influence on senators and the public.
In the wake of Caesar’s death and Octavian’s ascension into Roman politics, he and Marcus Antoinus and Lepidus formed a second Triumvirate. This alliance was cemented through his marriage to Fulvia’s daughter (Marcus Antonius’ stepdaughter), Claudia. This went south relatively soon after which relations between Octavian and Antonius soured by 41 BCE. Fulvia spoke to senators on behalf of her husband and then raised an army to defend her family’s interests while Marcus was abroad. She worked with Marcus’ brother Lucius to raise eight legions against Octavian to protect her husband’s interests where she felt he was being side-lined. This brought Fulvia and Octavian to war in 41 BCE, called the Perusine War.
Fulvia and Lucius Antonious’ army occupied Rome briefly, though eventually they were forced to take refuge in Perusia. Marcus appeared to be unaware of the conflict, accused in poetry, of all places, of being too busy with affairs in Cappadocia (with Glaphyra) to resolve his wife’s jealousy. The poem is racy but worth having a look (Martial 11.20). Things did not go Fulvia’s way and she had to flee to Greece, where, apparently, Marcus rebuked and abandoned her. Fulvia died soon after in exile in Greece, and the newly reconciled Octavian and Marcus blamed the whole thing on Fulvia. Her legacy lived on in the children she bore in each marriage, and in infamy, as she became the counterpoint to what a “good Roman wife” should be. Appian blames her weakness and jealousy as the cause of the war (B.Civ 5.3.19). From antiquity onwards, Fulvia has drawn the short straw when compared to Octavia (Octavian’s sister and Marcus’ next wife), however I think there is a lot to learn from Fulvia’s reach and impact on the politics of the time. Even though she was not technically allowed to participate, she left her mark and remains one of the few powerful women of the past we know a great deal about.
4. Regilla, Patroness in Greece 2nd century CE
Annia Regilla, drawn from a statue of her daughter. Art by Zofia Guertin.
Appia Annia Regilla was born in 125 CE into a wealthy family with significant influence as relatives of the Roman Empress Faustina the Elder, wife of Antoninus Pius. Regilla was 14 years old when she was married to the richest man in Greece, Herodes Atticus, who was 40 years her senior. This was a fairly typical age differential among the elite, whereas the lower classes typically married much closer in age. Herodes served under Hadrian as a prefect of the Province of Asia, then tutored Antoninus Pius’ adoptive sons, the future Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus.
When the couple resettled in Greece, Regilla was part of the upper echelon of Greek elites and welcomed into service as a priestess to Tyche and Demeter Chamyne (in Olympia). This priestess position allowed Regilla the unique honour of being the only woman present at the Olympic Games in 153 CE. From her own funds Regilla dedicated a monumental fountain (nymphaeum) in Olympia with a bull statue in her own name and decorated the fountain with statues of the Antonines and her own family. Herodes commissioned an aqueduct to channel water into this fountain.
Regilla commissioned many architectural works that highlighted her family (she had four children with Herodes) and their links to the ruling imperial family in Rome. It was not commonly the case that women would dedicate benefactions in their own names; more frequently these dedications would be in the names of their family or alongside a male relative. Regilla seemed to have her own interests in doing things for herself, acutely acting by her own agency to leave her mark. It’s fortunate she did. In 160 CE, while heavily pregnant, she was murdered by her husband or a member of his household. Her family brought suit against Herodes, as there was no doubt it was not an accident. Marcus Aurelius stepped in and prevented his former teacher’s prosecution and that was the end of it. The following year Herodes dedicated the spectacular Odeon of Athens in memory of his wife, in 161 CE, which still stands today at the foot of the Acropolis. Herodes spent the rest of his life building monuments, giving expensive gifts to religious organisations and inscribing surfaces with professions of his never-ending grief for the loss of his wife. To see photos of the buildings and decorations Herodes and Regilla sponsored, you can check out my post here on Herodes Atticus!
5. Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra
Zenobia of Palmyra. Art by Zofia Guertin.
Zenobia was the next in a line of scary eastern queens that shook the Romans in their sandals. Zenobia led a revolt against the Romans from Palmyra which spread into Egypt and Asia Minor and led to war.
Zenobia was married to the Palmyrene chieftain Septimius Odenathus, a client king of the Romans, who was subsequently murdered in 267 CE. Odenathus had kept the eastern Roman provinces together against the threat of the Sassanians, once he died, Zenobia continued this policy and remained loyal to Rome. This change in relationship status allowed her to be the sole ruler while acting as regent for her young son. Once in control of her own court and interests, Zenobia seems to have been a patroness of the arts and literature, creating a court of intellectuals and beacon of culture. Fluent in several languages, Zenobia learned Greek and was given a History of Alexandria by Callinicus. It is not hard to imagine that she was visualising herself as a new Cleopatra VII, since the Romans were certainly projecting that on to her at the time.
When the Roman Emperor Claudius Gothicus died in 270 CE, Zenobia took the opportunity to revolt against the Empire. Emperor Aurelian fought the armies of Zenobia at Antioch and Emesa, then put down her supporters’ rebellions in Egypt.
Aurelian defeated the queen and took her hostage back to Rome. Achieving one symbolic victory over a foreign eastern queen that was denied the Romans when, instead of capturing Cleopatra VII she took her own life in Alexandria, Aurelian paraded the captured queen in a triumph in 274 CE. If we are to believe the Historia Augusta, a problematic source document but cited none the less, the text also suggests that the queen was retired to an estate on the Tibur. Aurelian is said to have praised her intelligence, military acumen and beauty, praising her as a worthy adversary.
What About Other Women?
The daily lives of women in the Roman world are often characterised as within the home. For women of elite social status, that was in a large part accurate, though not the entire story. From wealthy households, low-income families or the enslaved, women in the Roman Empire were skilled in a broad array of professions which might surprise you.
As now, not everyone could be a homeowner or afford staff, fine objects or even decorations of any kind. Those who could afford a home (domus) would use it as part of how they communicated their status to the outside world. A well-off family might display portraits of ancestors (women and men) in the central hall of their domus, in the atrium. How a matriarch ran an elite home involved many staff and servants, and she might have had to do so alone for many years while her husband was away on campaigns, or in advantageous political posts. The matriarch would have been in charge of assets, correspondences, keeping clients connected to their patron and so on. The nuance of ‘a wife’s work’ in this context really extended into areas like accountant, personal administrator, event planner and social networker. The house staff might include cooks, laundresses, gardeners, pastry chefs, spinners and weavers, hairdressers, butchers, cleaners, waiting staff, artists and artisans – if they were having mosaics installed said atrium or maybe a fresco painted on the wall- and the list could go on. Many of these jobs could be performed by women, and this is only a small fraction of the types of employment if you were a freeperson. Enslaved women might do many of these jobs as well.
In antiquity as ever, having educated or skilled daughters was a means to greater financial stability for the family and into their own adulthood or marriage later on. If a woman came from a family in the trades, it stands to reason she would participate in some way within that trade, and thus her knowledge and expertise would increase her desirability as a partner. Pliny the Elder mentions female painters in The Natural History, who were paid and perceived favourably to their male counterparts. He lists several women whose fathers trained them in the arts: Timarete, daughter of Micon was renowned for her panel painting; Irene daughter of Cratinus (a painter), painted mythical characters and daily life scenes; Aristarete, daughter of Nearchus, painted the god Aesculapius. He notes Iaia of Cyzicus remained single but was a prolific painter of women’s portraits, whose talent and expedition were unmatched; Pliny says she was even paid more than well-known male painters whose works filled galleries (HN 35.40.83-87).
With these professional pathways for women in the ancient world in mind, I have created a series of colouring sheets with an activity related to the characters from Vita Romana! If you’d like to explore the different roles of women in the Roman period.
Milnor, K. (2011). ‘Women in Roman Society’. In The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World. The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World, 2011-02-01, Vol.1. Oxford University Press.
Pomeroy, S. (2009). The Murder of Regilla : A Case of Domestic Violence in Antiquity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Rowlandson, J. (1998). Women and society in Greek and Roman Egypt : A sourcebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Whitehorne, J. (1994). Cleopatras /, London; New York: Routledge.
In this NSFW blogpost, I discuss sex in ancient history.
This week, I am launching series 2 of Two Friends Talk History with its new format! My guest is Dr Briana King, a good friend and frequent travel companion with whom I discuss sex in the ancient world. Our conversation took many tantalising turns, one of which was the way that erotic objects were presented in the ancient world. You can find the episode here:
Effectively, any surface could be decorated with erotic art and the meanings behind it were not limited to arousal. The idea of hanging a phallic wind chime outside your front door, decorating store-fronts with priapic imagery or giving a child the gift of a protective phallus necklace might seem strange now, but the phallocentric worlds experienced in the past were comfortable with nudity to a greater degree and had imbued it with many layers of meaning. Several types of domestic and dedicatory objects that represent the manifest desire for good luck and abundance in the ancient world, have the power to make modern audiences squirm.
The prevalence of erotic imagery in the ancient world was common among the Greeks and Romans, though explored differently. Greek art depicting sexual activity and erotic scenes did feature selectively on painted pottery, with evidence suggesting they were only around for a relatively short period of time. Hermae were large sculptural rectangular plinths with a large phallus on the front, topped with a bust of a god or man, and considered protective. To destroy one was a sacrilege and a real existential threat to the city-state. As Thucydides recounted, just prior to the departure of the Athenian navy to Sicily in 415 BCE, many heads of the hermae were vandalised, and since they were viewed as divine protection from evil (like the evil eye) and placed liberally throughout cities at crossroads, this was viewed as an attack on the wellbeing of the city. Alcibiades was accused by his political rivals and had to flee the city for his life (Thuc.6.27). Cities throughout the Greek world used these phallic symbols of protection which were eventually adopted by the Romans.
Illustration of Aphrodite garlanding a herm of Dionysus based on a terracotta figure from Asia Minor, c.100 BCE. Source: Z. Guertin.
Perhaps even more liberally, stimulating visual symbols populated Roman public spaces, private homes and every type of material culture. Roman good luck symbols include delightful examples of erotic imagery. A whole collection of objects in the Secret Cabinet (Gabinetto Segreto) room in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples purposefully exhibits many of the erotic materials found within Pompeii and Herculaneum together in what was once a forbidden collection, only accessible by the wealthy and connected of the 18th century. The room was opened to the public as a permanent exhibition space in 2000. The collection inside has some truly outstanding examples of frescoes, metal work and sculpture grouped into thematic sections.
Images from the Suburban bath complex apodyterium (changing room). Source: Wikimedia commons.
A large array of painted sexual acts were found in a brothel and bath complex in Pompeii and are now displayed in this exhibition space. The contexts of these images make understanding their viewership important. One can assume that erotic decoration in a brothel could serve as advertisements of services the sexworkers offered, material to get clients in the mood and so on. Whereas, the erotic paintings in the Suburban bath complex were used as decorations for clothing cubbies. Each place to store belongings had a different sex-act which ranged from partnerships of homosexual and heterosexual pairings to multiple partners and positions. It should be noted that the frescoes had been painted over at some point before the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE, but it is unlikely that they had been covered for that long. The erotic bath complex art would have been for a broader viewership than the similar themed and sized frescoes in the brothel. Both men and women from all social classes used the public baths, though probably at different times of the day in most cases. Visitors to the baths could purchase gratification from sexworkers there as well, but it cannot be assumed that this was the primary purpose of those images. Humour, aid-memoires and many other culturally relevant possibilities could account for decorating a public bath changing room with graphic sexual images (Vout 2013, pp.13-14).
Images from the Lupanar (brothel). Source: Z.Guertin.
Out of doors, urban dwellers used erotic objects to decorate and protect their homes and businesses. A display in the Secret Cabinet of erotic tintinnabula. A tintinnabulum was a wind chime or group of bells, in this case, shaped like an ithyphallic (erect) figure or fascinum meant to represent the divine phallus. The magic phallic image embodies protective powers and curative magic, often worn as a necklace charm, or other portable object. The these wind chimes could take some pretty outrageous forms, more than a simple ithyphallic or priapic (an over-size engorged phallus) theme. I include a photo I took in the museum below, and my super family-friendly illustration.
While visiting this room, I have enjoyed the opportunity to sketch these objects on several occasions, partially because there are so many examples but also to listen to the chat going by while I would draw. My favourite visitors to the room were women in their 70s. They probably had the best jokes and canning themselves with laughter.
The complex and nuanced religious landscape of the ancient world included local, borrowed and transformed gods which influenced daily life and social behaviours (including erotic tastes!). The universally popular goddess, Aphrodite/Venus, was prolific all throughout the Graeco-Roman world with sanctuaries and cult sites in essentially every city. We are familiar with her and the associated attributes of her powers, and included with ‘civilised’ types of eroticism. Whereas, a popular but minor deity, Priapus, was another more rustic erotic god with a uniquely large phallus. In the cannon of Graeco-Roman art, ithyphallic images were associated with uncivilised erotic displays and wildness. Priapus (the son of Hermes, like Pan) was responsible for agricultural fertility, gardens and male genitalia and were some of the only examples of deities who were represented being sexually aroused.
The objects discussed fit into daily life of the ancients. Essentially, anyone with the financial means, could procure these objects and display them or wear them as they chose. There was nothing taboo about art that depicted nudity and eroticism. For modern viewers of these fleshy, vibrantly coloured frescoes and decorative bronzes, they may seem lusty or crude, whereas viewing statuary – even if it depicts violent erotic imagery – is seen as tasteful. This follows our inheritance of Enlightenment thinking that the statues from the ancient world were striped of their original colours, if any remained, to present a white polished version that never really existed. One needs to consider the nudity of statuary within this context of viewership. They too were fleshy, wearing popular fashions and bright colours. Though understood to be sacred representations, they were still incredibly beautiful and could be erotic as well. The famous story of the rape of the Aphrodite statue, the Knidian Aphrodite by Praxiteles, illustrates the incredible arousal these objects could create, when a visitor to the statue was so overtaken he pleasured himself then ended his own life for the shame of his actions (Plin. NH. 36.21-22; Pseudo-Lucian Amores 9-17).
Knidian Aphrodite, Museo nazionale Romano, Palazzo Altemps, Inv. 8619. Source: Wikimedia commons.
Images depicting deities could blur the line of object and divine. Did frescoes of sex acts communicate bigger ideas or associations to audiences in the ancient world? Probably. Viewing art is never a passive experience, particularly when it can actively invite erotic responses from viewers!
The illustrations I have created for this episode will be available on my Redbubble shop, and behind the scenes extras including an extended podcast interview and downloadable goodies will be available on Patreon. Thank you for checking out my blog and do have a listen to the podcast episode, Sex in the ancient world! You may never think of the Spartans the same way again!
Tis the season when we celebrate community and the change of the year! How did the Romans celebrate the end of the year?
The Roman celebration of Saturnalia was held for several days in mid-December to celebrate the passing of seasons, with its roots in the worship of the agricultural god Saturn. Saturn was syncretised with the Greek Kronos as the Romans came to control Greece, becoming increasingly invested in their gods. Saturn is often depicted as an older bearded man holding a scythe, an acknowledgement of his agrarian roots. The temple of Saturn in Rome stood prominently in the forum and is evidenced to this day by eight impressive columns and a partial podium.
From the late Republican period (the last 1oo years or so BCE) the midwinter celebration officially grew from three days to five in the Principate (December 17th to December 23rd). These were just official trends as it’s generally believed that unofficially it was a week, a bit like now depending on your employment. For the Romans work, studies and legal actions came to a halt and people were ready to party!
In Lucian’s Saturnalia, he speaks with the voice of Saturn in dialogue with a priest, observing how the revelries in his name should take place among the Romans: gaming, dancing, song and drinking were all part of the celebration of Saturnalia; it also involved things familiar to us today like decorating homes with greenery and wearing bright and colourful clothing (synthesis), like ugly sweater parties! Lucian’s Saturn is a very reasonable god who lays out three “laws” for gifting, celebrating and banqueting, emphasising fairness in all measures and not being compelled to act or gift beyond your means.
The King of Saturnalia
A king of Saturnalia acted as the ‘Lord of Misrule’ (like Carnivale) in these celebrations. Elected as the mock king, the Saturnalicius princeps, this agent of acceptable chaos in the household would walk the line between being a cheeky chap and straight up humorously (presumably) insulting guests and members of the household. Bear in mind that Roman households could be somewhat larger than ours – the nuclear family at the centre could include grandparents, cousins, adopted family members, children from other marriages, guests and the enslaved household labourers. Many of the societal norms were relaxed and played with in the household, where during this period the enslaved could eat at the head of the table with those who owned them taking a lower status position. Women too could mingle with men (in some circumstances) a little more freely and could hang together and gamble.
The fun frivolity of Saturnalia drinking parties!
Gifts for Saturnalia
Gift-giving was an important part of Saturnalia. Gifts of high value were not necessarily what one would expect, generally the humour of lower cost gifts was appreciated- like trolling a friend with a joke gift. Catullus wrote of receiving epically bad poetry for a gift and it is fun to imagine the kind of hilarious insults he possibly wrote for friends for their gifts, like getting ‘read’ by Oscar Wild but smuttier. Saturnalia gifts could include: sausages, dried fruit, wine, piglets, wax candles (cerei), dolls, toys, books, statues, tools, exotic pets and more!
The live piglet is especially appealing !
The last day of Saturnalia
As all good things must come to an end, so too did the annual revels of the Romans. On the last day of Saturnalia one would give sigillaria – terracotta or wax figurines, shaped in the likeness of familiar deities, mythical figures or easily caricatured types (grotesques). The day itself was called ‘Sigillaria‘; the gift type and gift-giving influenced the day’s name. Much like Boxing Day which one theory suggests may have started (according to the OED) as the first weekday after Christmas when postmen, delivery workers and servants of various types would receive a Christmas box, in which was some type of gift or tip. Possibly due in part to the ways gods were part of the everyday lives of Romans, and worshipped in the home in small devotional figures – the Lares – as guardians of the home, it is not surprising that a popular gift would include their likenesses in inexpensive small gifts, conferring further good luck and protection. For the wealthy, these gifts could be made from costly materials like gold or silver. Given their popularity, someone who crafted and sold this merchandise was called a sigillarius. Vendors were quite busy at this time of year, setting up stalls like the Christmas markets we are familiar with today.
The Lares could be quite varied: a Lar holding a cornucopia from Axatiana, Dionysus and Isis Panthea (all goddess).
The Romans had many festivals throughout the year, and a few days after the wild revels of Saturnalia, they celebrated the sober and solemn Compitalia, another festival in which metaphoric beginnings and endings are associated with the end of the year. Named after compita (crossroads), the recently revelrous enslaved peoples would offer sacrifices on behalf of the households within the neighbourhoods they lived to the Lares of the crossroads. Perhaps it is fitting to have a week of revels which brought families and friends together be followed up with a more sober festival which celebrated the bonds of community. Saying goodbye to the year is always fraught with bittersweet reflections with this year being notable in that regard, as surely in many world-changing years before the communities celebrating these rites would join together to celebrate and pray for better times ahead.
Compitalia fresco from exterior wall of a building in Pompeii, 1st c. CE
Stay safe and thank you for reading!
Io, Saturnalia!
Xox Archaeoartist (Zofia) and Mr Archaeoartist (Chris).
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